Archaeological Investigation into the Tusi Sites in China's Southwest: Imperial Expansion and the Colonization of Frontiers and Borderlands

The tusi system (the native chieftaincy system), a form of indirect rule, was employed by the late Imperial Chinese state, particularly from the 13th to 20th centuries (Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties), to gain and expand political control over tribal chieftains: tusi whose families historically had positions of authority in a given region of borderlands and frontiers, or individuals whose families had been rewarded for their loyal service to the imperial government. Under the tusi system, the Chinese court officially recognized indigenous tribal chieftains as hereditary rulers of native people and land, thus bringing additional territories and border populations under at least nominal imperial control with minimal local disruption and military expenditure. By submitting to the Chinese court, the chieftains were permitted to maintain a large degree of political autonomy, and to continue their cultural tradition. Unlike officials who were part of the regular imperial system of administration, tusi could not simply be transferred to another region or another post. The tusi system emerged in the 13th century, and became institutionalized and reached its peak from the 14th to 17th centuries; from the middle of 18th century on, it was gradually replaced by the "gaitu guiliu " policy (to replace the original native hereditary chieftains with the central government's regular bureaucrats). The tusi system served a major political, economic and ideological force in China's imperial expansion into its Southwest, a mountain-ridden region that was difficult to be directly controlled or managed by the central government. The imperial expansion was much more than military conquests, involving a dynamic matrix of cooperation, negotiation, adoption, economic exploitation, local resistance as well as violence; it resulted in fundamental social and cultural transformations in indigenous societies of China’s Southwest.

The history and nature of the tusi system and its significance in the relationship between the Chinese imperial state and its southwest frontiers have been extensively studied since the 1930s, primarily based on historical archives and a limited number of ethnographic surveys. Very little attention had been paid to the prospect of using archaeological data to investigate the tusi system. Early archaeological investigations of tusi sites, mostly burials, dated back to the beginning of 1950s, but systematic work didn’t occur until the 2010s when a number of large-scale excavations and surveys were launched to investigate the form and nature of cultural contact and colonization, and to explore the social, economic, religious, and political institutions and dynamics of the tusi system. Furthermore, these archaeological investigations aim at better understanding the nature, strategies, and political and cultural consequences of China's imperial expansion into its southwestern frontiers and borderlands. Among the key tusi sites investigated by our institutes are Hailongtun (Zunyi, Guizhou Province), Laosicheng (Yongshun, Hunan Province), and Tangya (Xianfeng, Hubei Province). These three sites are all located on the northeast edge of the Yun-Gui Plateau in China’s Southwest.

A multidisciplinary approach has been adopted in our archaeological investigation into tusi -related remains, involving archaeological survey and excavation, the use of enormous historical archives, and theoretical considerations from the fields of ethnography, ethnology, sociology, and anthropology. Many newly developed survey technologies have been widely and intensively employed in our archaeological surveys and excavations at tusi sites across China’s Southwest, including the use of 3D laser scanning, multispectral and hyperspectral scanning, LIDAR, aerial photogrammetry, GPS-RTK survey and other techniques.

Tusi Sites in Bozhou

In the 13th year of the Zhenguan reign period of the Tang dynasty, Bozhou was established as a prefecture. In the third year of Qianfu (876) of the Tang dynasty, Yang Duan and his family were granted the territory of Bozhou permanently. The first Pacification Commissioner of Bozhou was conferred on the Yangs in 1277, by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty (It was the Yuan that initiated the policy of negotiating relationships between the expanding imperial state and frontier elites). Yang Keng, the first to receive the Pacification Commissioner title from Ming (1371), was seen the most powerful of a number of recognized chieftains in southwest China in the beginning of the Ming dynasty. In the spring of 1600, the Ming empire assembled over 240,000 troops to suppress the uprising of last Yang’s Pacification Commissioner Yang Yinglong and end the rule of the Yang family in Bozhou, which had lasted through 27 generations and 725 years.

The tomb of the 13th Yang-family tusi , Yangcan, was discovered in 1953 and excavated in 1957. Subsequently, Yangfamily cemeteries were found in Gaoping, Xinpu and Tuanxi. In the 1980s, systematic survey was undertaken to investigate the Yang-family tusi sites at Bozhou; the distribution of archaeological remains was mapped at Guantun, Hailongtun, Yangmacheng, and Tianzhuang. From this time onward, about 100 sites have been found in association with the Bozhou Yang-family tusi , including major sites such as Baijingpu and Mujiachuan of the early and late pacification commissioners, respectively; the guantun (a defense system) remains centered at Hailongtun; and Yantang, with features of agricultural economy. A total of nine Yang-family tusi tombs have been excavated, including Yangcan (13th tusi ), Yangjia (14th tusi), Yangwen (15th tusi ), Yangjian (21st tusi ), Yangsheng (22nd tusi), Yanggang (24th tusi ), Yanghui (25th tusi), Yangai (26th tusi ), and Yanglie (29th tusi ). In addition, there are 4 other Yang-family tombs and 2 cemeteries of the Luo-lineage. There are also several large-sized cist tombs possibly belonging to tusi . The tusi cemetery of Yang-family at Xinpu was systematically excavated from March 2013 through December 2014, yielding a tremendous amount of mortuary data that cannot be matched by any known excavations in the borderlands of China's Southwest.

The Hailongtun Fortress, a mountain fortification of Bozhou tusi , was initially built to defend against the invasion of the Mongols at the end of the Song dynasty (1257), and was rebuilt and expanded during the Ming dynasty in order to resist the power of the central government. Initially excavated in 1999, Hailongtun has been systematically excavated since April 2012, fully revealing the “New Palace” which boasts a remaining defensive wall of 5838 m long and contains 9 gates, 6 sentry posts, 1 barrack, and 1 drilling ground, as well as other features including administration and living compounds, craft workshops, roads and water facilities. The “New Palace” was a grandiose complex consisting of a group of buildings arranged around a central walkway and closed-off by a surrounding wall. The buildings were erected on five-step foundations, which gradually ascend up the slope of mountain on which the buildings lay, while the road and drainage systems were installed separately in the complex.

From May to October 2014, an excavation was carried out at the site of Yangmacheng, which identified the location and structure of the city-wall and city-gate, and showed the spatial organization of administration and other buildings within the city. From 2014 to 2015, full-scale excavations were undertaken at the tusi cemeteries at Xinpu and Yanghui, revealing their overall plans. Cemeteries are located along the banks of Xiangjiang River (10-50 km from the administration complex) and its tributaries. The cemeteries lie at the base of the mountains and face the river, showing the concepts of feng shui . Burials were usually near one’s ancestors, with ground buildings in the cemeteries including wall and temples. The burials included two types in terms of the construction of their chambers, one made of wood, and the other of stone (which usually had fine and elegantly incised decorative patterns). Among burial goods are sets of gold and silver artifacts, ceramics, and objects associated with architectural construction.
Laosicheng Tusi Site

Laosicheng is the largest and best preserved tusi urban settlement. It was built by the 15th headman of the Peng family that was appointed as Yongshun tusi , governing the area of Xizhou Prefecture in today's Hunan province. Initially built in the fifth year of Shaoxing, Southern Song dynasty (AD 1135), Laosicheng underwent large-scale construction and expansion later in the Ming dynasty. The site was abandoned in the second year of Yongzheng, during the Qing dynasty (AD 1724). Laosicheng served as the administrative, residential, commercial, cultural and military center; it was used for about 589 years.

 Excavations at Laosicheng began in 1995. Four seasons of excavation were carried out between 1995 and 2014, gradually uncovering the spatial configuration of the site, including the core area, primary area (the center of the city) and outer area. The core area covers 25,220 m2, including both residential and administrative sectors. The primary area (the center of the city) is about 190,000 m2, including the enclosed core area and its surrounding streets, a central learning and teaching district, as well as elite cemeteries. The primary area was where the Peng-family tusi resided, worked, and learned rituals; it was also the living quarter with a highly concentrated population. The living area measures 16,700 m2, and archaeological excavations here have revealed the orientation and structure of the city wall, the gate and a road, the basic layout of the drainage system, the distribution of buildings and the features of the main building. The administration complex covered 8520 m2. Excavation revealed the structure of the building features on the first step foundation (outside office) and the third step foundation. The elite cemetery was located on the Mountain of Zijing, southeast of the administration complex, and covered an area of about 15400 m2. Fieldwork revealed the spatial distribution of multi-tiered burials. More effort was devoted to the excavation of tombs of tusi dating to the middle-late periods of the Ming dynasty. It disclosed that the cemetery wall and sacred road, stone statues, and identified burials with two different types of chambers, those made of brick and those made of stone. Burials were arranged in rows, with larger tombs usually located near the middle position; the status of the burials then progressively decreased moving from the middle to the edges. The burials contain the remains of brick, tile, and some stone building components, as well as gold and silver vessels, glazed pottery that may be locally produced, and imported porcelain from state-controlled production at Jingdezheng, as well as other examples that may be from Jingdezheng or local, private kilns. The outer area covers 25 km2, and includes the ancestral temple complex, Guanyin Pavilion, the architectural complex of Yujiapu, the architectural district in Jianqinwan, Bihua Manor, plank roads, checkpoints, as well as other architectural remains. These features were all associated with different and complementary functions, forming the important ecological and cultural landscape of Laosicheng.

Tangya Tusi Site

The Tangya Zhangguansi was established in the 15th year of Zhizheng of the Yuan dynasty (AD 1355). In the 4th year of Yongzheng of the Qing dynasty, it was abandoned as the local ethnic minority began to accept the direct administration from the Qing central government (gaitu guiliu). The area that Tangya tusi once dominated was combined into the Xianfeng, a newlyestablished county. The Tangya tusi of the Tan family ruled the southwest region of Shizhou Prefecture in modern Hubei province for 18 generations and over 380 years of hereditary rule.

Early in 1978, the remains of tusi in the Ming-Qing Dynasties were identified through archaeological survey. In 1986, systematic archaeological survey clarified the site’s overall extent, and the main types of remains. In 2011, while preparing to enter UNESCO’s World Heritage List, archaeological survey was carried out at the site of Tangya tusi from September to December and initial excavations were carried out at the Guanyantang, governing office district of the site. From March to June 2013, a complete, systematic survey and archaeological exploration were both carried out at the site of Tangya tusi . Moreover, excavation of the gate and inner buildings of the government office district was initiated, uncovering a large number of objects associated with building components, blue and white porcelain, and other ancient artifacts which help to reveal the basic structure, distribution and plan, and cultural milieu of the site. The principal remains dated to the middle-late period of Ming Dynasty to the beginning of the Qing dynasty (17th to 18th century). It covered approximately 80 hectares, and included the governing place of the Tujia Minority, the legacy of the Tangya Tan-family tusi .

The site of Tangya tusi is located on the narrow area along the river, surrounded by several mountains, such as Xuanwu Mt., Zhuque Mt., Baihu Mt., and Qinglong Mt. On the west side is Xuanwu Mt., which extends north towards the Tangya River, facing Qinglong Mt. across the river. Between these mountains, there is narrow river valley with steep cliffs. To the east, there is Tangya River and Zhuque Mt., which are arrayed in a north-south direction along the river. The Baihu Mt. is on the southern side, the eastern part of which is connected with Zhuque Mt. creating a steep valley. The whole site contains the city, cemetery, and hunting zone, among other areas. Following the Tangya River Valley up to the peak of Xuanwu Mt., the Zhangwangmiao and Xiaoyamen (administration districts) and a cemetery formed by four ramped terraces can be found. The urban area is the major part of the site. It is located on the east side, and encircled by a city-wall and an external moat on all four sides; together these structures formed a double defense system. The urban area was laid out in an irregular trapezoid shape, covering around 35 hectares. The upper-middlelower three streets, three lower canals, and three roads oriented east to west constituted the main transportation networks for inhabitants at the site; thus, archaeological remains were found distributed along these roads. In addition to the governing office district that was located in the core area of the city, there also was a sacred temple, park and hunting zone, martial area, cemetery, common residential area, and quarry. The majority of the cemetery is distributed in the western part of the site, within the city’s western area, and surrounding the city wall.

The excavations revealed 12 burials from the Ming Dynasty and 2 burials from the Qing Dynasty. The chambers were all made from stone, representing 4 types: four rooms, three rooms, double rooms, and one single room. There were several burial goods unearthed, including stone and ceramic objects associated with architectural construction, blue and white porcelain, and so on. Additionally, there are contemporaneous remains and burials distributed within a 2 km radius centered on the site.

Hailongtun, Laosicheng and Tangya were collectively inscribed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015 as a historical and material testimony of the tusi system, one of the most intriguing aspects of traditional Chinese government.

Conclusions and Implications

Through systematic archaeological fieldwork, various tusi - related remains have been identified, including administrative complexes, defensive systems, cemeteries, and religious features. They clearly show non-Han and regional characteristics, indicative of multiple ethnicities and cultural diversity unique to China’s mountain-ridden Southwest during the period of 13th to 20^th centuries. They also reveal the social organization, military doctrine, cultural structure, and economic institutions of the tusi system, implying the highly autonomous and independent dominion of tusi and their administrative policy.

Exemplified by the tusi sites of Hailongtun, Laosicheng, and Tangya, the central administrative complex is characterized by its grandiose size, highly planned structures, and the extravagance of furnished goods. These remains shared many features with those in the Central Plain, such as their particular historical period, administrative hierarchy, functional structure, settlement pattern and architectural style, suggesting that China’s Southwest tusi conformed to the hegemony (and possibly ideology) of imperial courts in the Central Plain.

All identified tusi tombs are of a high class, spatially and formally well-planned, and grandiose in scale. The furnished goods consisted of many different kinds, which always appeared in groups or sets, and were dominated by gold and silver objects. They are important materials for the study of mortuary institutions and rituals, arts, and culture contact associated with the tusi system of the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties.

Tusi sites manifested the administration wisdom “qizheng xiujiao, yinsu erzhi ”- managing frontier borderland communities through teaching rituals, and implementing a differential ruling system through the adoption of different policies and strategies in accordance of local conditions and needs – that was unique to the multi-ethnic character of China's Southeast. They were indeed a materialization of the administrative philosophy of implementing a differential ruling system (yinsu erzhi ); such strategies promoted the long-term unity and stability of China’s multi-ethnic state. They may also have a relevance to today’s global system of multi-national and autonomous states.

Dating from the Song through Yuan and Ming dynasties, the tusi sites investigated in this study are direct material evidence of the jimi-tusi insitutions (jimi , an antecedent form of tusi , is a haltered-and-bridled prefecture developed during the Tang and Song dynasties). The sites record changes in the strategies employed in the history of imperial expansion from the jimi (haltered-and-bridled prefectures) of the Tang and Song dynasties through the tusi of the Yuan and Ming dynasties to the gaitu guiliu (to replace tusi officials with state-appointed civilian officials) that began initially during the Mind dynasty. They strongly demonstrated how the imperial state explored, managed and administrated the frontiers and borderlands in China’s Southwest, and how these areas gradually became integral parts of China. Recent archaeological surveys and excavations at these three tusi sites have produced for the first time an extraordinary amount of material findings demonstrating the hybrid culture characteristic of culture contact and colonial encounters, showing the material manifestation of both continuity and change in social practices and cultural identities. They shed light on the historical processes of imperial expansion southward and the colonization of indigenous frontiers and borderlands during the later imperial period, a crucial stage to the development of modern China. These archaeological investigations shall help us move beyond the imperialist (orcolonialist) perspective of core-periphery relationships. T hey will also contribute to our understanding of how cultural pluralism may have created new forms of cultural practices and social relations, highlight the agency and practices used by colonized people, and fully explore the dynamics of culture change and persistence in multiethnic societies.
 
Biographical Sketches

Zhou Bisu is research fellow and director of the Guizhou Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology. Zhou is mainly engaged in the archaeology of Bouzhou Yang-Family tusi sites, and mortuary archaeology of the Yuan and Ming dynasties in China’s Southwest. The excavations at Hailongtun and Xinpu Yang-family tusi cemeteries Zhou conducted as a principal investigator were recognized among 2012’s “Top Six” and 2014’s “Top Ten”, respectively.

Guo Weimin is research fellow and director of the Hunan Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology. Dr. Guo has participated in and been responsible for many archaeological field projects in Hunan province. A number of the projects he directed were awarded by the National Top Ten Archaeological Discoveries and the National Field Archaeology Awards Programs. Dr. Guo’s research interest is in the archaeology of Chinese Neolithic, Hunan Pre-Qin archaeology, and cultural heritage preservation. Guo has published more than 50 papers and 3 monographs.

Fang Qin is director of Hubei Museum and director of the Hubei Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology. He has directed a number of archaeological and museum projects in the province of Hubei. The excavation at Guojiamiao he carried out was inscribed on the list of 2014 Top 10 Archaeological Discoveries in China.
 
（Zhou Bisu    Guizhou Insititue of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology；Guo Weimin    Hunan Insititue of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology；Fang Qin    Hubei Insititue of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology；)

 ( Source: Research Center for World Archaeology, Shanghai Academy）